Abstract: The GOAT Network Economic Brown Paper 2.0 has been released, providing systematic improvements to the security and incentive challenges of Bitcoin-Native ZK Rollup.
Author: Core Contributor of Biteye
@viee7227
@GOATRollup
In the Bitcoin-Native ZK Rollup Economic Brown Paper 2.0, an innovative economic design system is proposed to address the common issues of centralization, incentive imbalance, and security bottlenecks in the Bitcoin Layer 2 ecosystem. The core is built on a fairer, sustainable, and intrinsically growth-oriented BTCFi yield network through universal operator rotation, cross-role subsidies, yield pool splitting, and pBTC/yBTC interest-bearing models.
This article will break down the economic model and core technologies of the GOAT Network one by one, including the rotation mechanism of general operators and the multi-round challenge solution, and compare it with other BTC L2 projects to see how GOAT carves out a unique path in Layer 2.
Why does BTC Layer 2 need to redesign its economic structure?
With the rise of BTCFi (Bitcoin Financialization) and the BTC Layer 2 concept, various Rollups, sidechains, and bridge protocols have emerged. However, the current BTC L2 ecosystem generally faces three major structural issues:
High concentration of operational power: Key roles such as orderers and validators are often monopolized by a few nodes, with transaction order, state updates, and MEV extraction rights controlled by a very small number of people. Serious imbalance between income and costs: Orderers earn transaction fees, while validators bear high computational costs, and challengers often lack sufficient economic incentives, leading to long-term unfair gameplay among system participants. Users cannot share the network dividends: Most BTC L2 only allow nodes to earn profits, while ordinary BTC users, despite providing liquidity or staking support, find it difficult to enjoy sustained returns.
These issues have led to new centralization risks, new trust costs, and potential imbalances in the economic model during the Bitcoin scaling process.
Why can't the existing economic model be sustainable?
Currently, most BTC L2s use centralized nodes, which pose a high risk; even with decentralized nodes, there are still several dilemmas in terms of the economic model.
The lack of incentive mechanisms for key roles in the protocol (such as sorters, provers, challengers, consensus committees, etc.) poses a challenge as challengers work without compensation, leading to a risk of dereliction of duty: challengers monitor the system over the long term but only receive rewards when fraud is detected, and the challenge process consumes a large amount of computing power, with highly unstable profit expectations. High capital threshold for node operation: provers usually require significant equipment investment, resulting in increasing centralization of node participants.
In the long term, an unreasonable economic model will lead to the system losing the motivation of new participants, and even slipping into a centralized collapse. The GOAT Network proposes an economic solution reshaped from the source of incentives.
2. How does GOAT redefine fairness with the "Universal Operator Rotation Mechanism"?
2.1 General Operator Rotation: A Decentralized Order for Everyone
To address these pain points, GOAT Network has innovatively proposed the concept of "Universal Operator." In the GOAT system, each operator takes turns assuming various roles such as Sequencer, Prover, Publisher, and Challenger.
In traditional Layer2 architectures, different functions are usually performed by different roles. For example, sequencers are responsible for packaging and ordering transactions, provers generate zero-knowledge proofs, publishers submit state data to the main chain, and challengers monitor and question suspicious states, among other tasks. BitVM2 is no exception, distributing these responsibilities across multiple roles and committees. The problem is that some roles make money (for example, sequencers can charge transaction fees), while others incur costs (for example, provers need high computational power to generate proofs), leading to a stark disparity between burdens and benefits. If roles remain fixed, it becomes difficult to design a fair and efficient economic model.
Therefore, the "Universal Operator" model can be considered one of the core innovations of GOAT. Through a rotation mechanism, everyone has the opportunity to play every role, all operators run the same software, abide by the same rules of the game, and everyone is responsible and benefits.
GOAT hopes to achieve the following optimizations through this universal operator model:
Balancing revenue and costs: By allowing operators to regularly rotate between profitable roles and high-cost roles, it ensures that each participant's income and expenditure are roughly balanced in the long run. Cross-role subsidies: This rotation between roles effectively creates a "cross-subsidy" effect. For example, when I, as an operator, earn money while acting as a sorter, part of that revenue offsets the computational costs when I later act as a prover. This ties together the previously fragmented interests of roles, driving everyone to cooperate rather than compete. Lowering participation thresholds: With role rotation, small and medium nodes do not have to continually bear the burden of high-cost roles. This means that participants in the network do not need to invest huge amounts of computational power or capital, allowing smaller players to join and share in the benefits. For the entire system, this enhances decentralization and openness — with more nodes, it aligns better with the spirit of Bitcoin. Enhancing system resilience: Since each node is well-trained and capable of performing multiple roles, when individual operators go offline or fail, the system can flexibly assign the corresponding responsibilities to other online nodes. The network no longer relies on a single service provider, thus possessing greater fault tolerance.
2.2 Yield Pool and Cross-Role Subsidies: The yBTC/pBTC model brings continuous returns.
With the universal operator network in place, there is still a need to clarify one question: how to distribute the revenue generated by the network in a way that both incentivizes node participation and rewards ordinary users? GOAT's answer is to design a revenue pool mechanism, introducing the yBTC/pBTC interest model to achieve reasonable distribution of profits and cross-role subsidies, allowing the entire network to form a positive economic cycle.
The specific operational steps are as follows: When users bridge BTC mainnet assets into GOAT, they will receive 1:1 locked L2 tokens, called gBTC (goatBTC). Both users and node operators can choose to stake their gBTC into decentralized sorter nodes, thereby earning mining rewards and corresponding yield-bearing tokens yBTC. yBTC can be understood as "BTC that carries interest," representing the staked principal and the future earnings that can be obtained from the network.
After obtaining yBTC, holders can further choose to deposit yBTC into the Decomposition Pool to separate the principal value from the future rights to earnings.
In this process, yBTC will be staked, and the smart contract will accordingly generate two new tokens:
pBTC (Principal BTC): Represents the principal value corresponding to a certain amount of BTC. Holding pBTC is equivalent to holding the redemption rights of that portion of the principal in the GOAT network, and is a "pure principal" token, equivalent to a zero-coupon bond. yToken (Yield Token): The sorter reward, represents the yield rights stripped from yBTC, which is the rights carrier of the BTC interest income generated by the network in the future, and is the future cash flow of income.
Why split? The liquidity design philosophy of GOAT.
Traditional yield design locks up the principal and future earnings, requiring users to wait for network dividend cycles, resulting in poor liquidity. GOAT releases the future value of BTC assets through yield splitting, allowing users to: trade future income rights in advance and gain instant liquidity. More importantly, the design of pBTC/yToken enables BTC users to have financial products similar to Ethereum's liquid staking assets within the Bitcoin ecosystem for the first time, greatly enriching the asset system of BTCFi. For example, pBTC/yBTC can have different maturity dates: 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, etc., which will establish an interest rate market based on BTC.
Through this split, the GOAT network provides users with the flexibility to manage their assets and expected returns, thereby giving rise to at least two main participation models.
For those users who value principal security or wish to manage future earnings in advance, they can hold pBTC while immediately selling the split-off yToken (which represents expected sorter rewards for a future period) in the market or use it for other financial activities. In this way, users convert future potential volatile and installment-realized earnings into immediate liquidity or certain value. For users pursuing higher yield potential, they can choose to purchase yToken from the market. The yToken grants them the right to receive sorter rewards during a specific period. As sorter earnings (such as fuel fees) may increase with rising network activity, the value of yToken may also increase accordingly.
2.3 Internal Economic Flow of the Revenue Pool: How to Form Cross-Role Subsidies?
The GOAT reward pool is not simply a distribution of rewards, but rather a dynamic balance of income and expenses for all participating roles.
The economic model design of the GOAT Network relies on a universal operator rotation mechanism and cross-cycle breakeven to achieve revenue subsidies among roles. Specifically speaking:
Each operator can earn transaction fees, sequencing rewards, and potential MEV gains while serving as a sequencer in a certain cycle. In other cycles, the operator may become a prover or a publisher, which requires bearing high computational costs or on-chain publishing fees. Since all nodes will take turns experiencing different roles, the total earnings of a node throughout the participation cycle = income when serving as a sequencer - costs when serving as a prover or publisher. The core of this design's subsidy: it is not instant allocation through a single revenue pool, but rather achieved through temporal role rotation for cross-cycle self-subsidization.
GOAT tends to achieve economic self-balance through trading fees themselves and role rotation, and does not want to rely entirely on additional subsidies or token issuance.
3. Multi-round challenge mechanism: Enhance security and accelerate block confirmation.
As mentioned earlier, the original BitVM2 challenge process suffers from a long cycle and low efficiency, with each challenge taking up to two weeks, which severely affects the user experience of waiting for transaction confirmations.
The most striking breakthrough of GOAT BitVM2 is that the challenge period has been shortened from 14 days to less than 1 day! Behind this is the "multi-round challenger rotation mechanism". To put it simply, when a suspicious state needs to be challenged, the system no longer assigns a fixed challenger and waits for their actions as before, but introduces multiple rounds of challenge opportunities. Specifically, the GOAT randomly selects a "challenger" from the node pool each time, and the challenger must review the validity of transactions and proofs within a short specified period of time. If the first round of challengers does not find a problem, the task immediately goes to the second round of randomly assigned challengers, and so on. This multi-round random review method is equivalent to a step-by-step review in the bank's business review, which greatly increases the probability of errors being discovered.
From a security perspective, multi-round challenges have improved the efficiency and effectiveness of fraud detection. When bad actors know that they could be caught by any honest node at any time, and that the cost of "bribing everyone" is extremely high, their willingness to commit wrongdoing naturally decreases. Furthermore, GOAT combines this mechanism with a dual penalty strategy, which not only punishes proposers who submit false states but also punishes challengers who are negligent or malicious in their challenges.
IV. Vertical Comparison: From 1.0 to 2.0, the Upgrade Path of the GOAT Economic Model
4.1 1.0 VS 2.0
The economic model of the GOAT Network was not developed overnight. In 2024, the team released version 1.0 of the Economics BeigePaper, which proposed a basic framework for decentralized multi-currency staking and sustainable BTC earnings. The model at that time focused on allowing BTC and DOGE holders to participate in the network through staking, sharing trading fee earnings, and realizing the vision of "Supply BTC/DOGE, Earn BTC." Version 1.0 depicted how general Sequencer nodes generate income and introduced the concept of yBTC as a proof of income, opening a new door for BTC holders to earn on-chain revenue.
However, with the proposal of the BitVM2 solution by Robin Linus and the advancement of the GOAT mainnet testing, the team also found the need to further improve security and incentive mechanisms. The newly released BeigePaper 2.0 has made several improvements addressing the shortcomings of 1.0. First, 2.0 fully introduces a multi-round challenger mechanism, compressing the original two-week challenge period to about one day, significantly enhancing user withdrawal speed and network activity. Secondly, 2.0 strengthens challenge incentives by adding fraud bounties and penalty mechanisms, filling the gap of "unpaid labor" for challengers during the 1.0 period, ensuring that the incentives for various roles in the network are more accurately aligned. It can be said that from 1.0 to 2.0, the GOAT Network has achieved a dual leap in both economic and technological terms—the former making network incentives fairer and more sustainable, and the latter providing solid and credible operational guarantees for these incentive mechanisms.
4.2 The Function and Ecological Role of GOAT Token
In the economic system of the GOAT Network, BTC earnings are the core of the network's circulation, but the GOAT token also plays an important role as an incentive tool.
The GOAT token plays a key role in the economic model by providing subsidies and incentives. Although the network's goal is to achieve self-balancing BTC earnings through cross-role subsidies, during the initial operation phase or high-cost rounds (such as complex proof generation), some additional incentives will be issued in the form of GOAT tokens as an important support during the network's launch phase.
Overall, the GOAT token is not a competing currency to BTC returns, but rather a complementary tool for the BTCFi yield ecosystem. The GOAT token focuses on network security and incentive adjustment, while BTC returns are the core of attracting users and funds to the network in the long term. This design ensures that the GOAT Network centers around BTC returns, with the GOAT token supported by governance, forming a reasonable dual-track economic structure.
V. Horizontal Comparison: Differences Between GOAT and Other BTC L2 Projects
Among the many BTC Layer 2 solutions, the differentiation of GOAT Network is manifested in: the Bitcoin-native ZK Rollup based on BitVM2, a well-designed Rollup economic model, and the yBTC/pBTC yield model, which achieves cross-role cost subsidies and provides users with sustainable BTC returns. Its architecture, balancing security neutrality, economic sustainability, and role decentralization, stands out among BTC L2 projects. The following is a specific comparison:
It can be seen that compared to the GOAT technology and economic model architecture, other project proposals lack a clear design for decentralized sorters, and there is no complete solution for the double spending problem, as well as detailed economic incentives for key network maintenance roles.
Conclusion: Moving towards a more democratic, more robust, and more efficient Bitcoin L2 future.
Whether the economic model of the GOAT Network can operate perfectly in the complex games of the real world remains to be seen. However, it undoubtedly provides us with highly inspiring ideas on how to build a fairer, more decentralized, and more resilient Bitcoin L2, and even in the entire blockchain scaling field. The exploration of the GOAT Network is worth our continued attention.
The content is for reference only, not a solicitation or offer. No investment, tax, or legal advice provided. See Disclaimer for more risks disclosure.
Breaking down GOAT Network: The economic flywheel designed for the BTCFi ecosystem
Abstract: The GOAT Network Economic Brown Paper 2.0 has been released, providing systematic improvements to the security and incentive challenges of Bitcoin-Native ZK Rollup. Author: Core Contributor of Biteye @viee7227 @GOATRollup In the Bitcoin-Native ZK Rollup Economic Brown Paper 2.0, an innovative economic design system is proposed to address the common issues of centralization, incentive imbalance, and security bottlenecks in the Bitcoin Layer 2 ecosystem. The core is built on a fairer, sustainable, and intrinsically growth-oriented BTCFi yield network through universal operator rotation, cross-role subsidies, yield pool splitting, and pBTC/yBTC interest-bearing models. This article will break down the economic model and core technologies of the GOAT Network one by one, including the rotation mechanism of general operators and the multi-round challenge solution, and compare it with other BTC L2 projects to see how GOAT carves out a unique path in Layer 2.
Why can't the existing economic model be sustainable? Currently, most BTC L2s use centralized nodes, which pose a high risk; even with decentralized nodes, there are still several dilemmas in terms of the economic model. The lack of incentive mechanisms for key roles in the protocol (such as sorters, provers, challengers, consensus committees, etc.) poses a challenge as challengers work without compensation, leading to a risk of dereliction of duty: challengers monitor the system over the long term but only receive rewards when fraud is detected, and the challenge process consumes a large amount of computing power, with highly unstable profit expectations. High capital threshold for node operation: provers usually require significant equipment investment, resulting in increasing centralization of node participants. In the long term, an unreasonable economic model will lead to the system losing the motivation of new participants, and even slipping into a centralized collapse. The GOAT Network proposes an economic solution reshaped from the source of incentives. 2. How does GOAT redefine fairness with the "Universal Operator Rotation Mechanism"? 2.1 General Operator Rotation: A Decentralized Order for Everyone To address these pain points, GOAT Network has innovatively proposed the concept of "Universal Operator." In the GOAT system, each operator takes turns assuming various roles such as Sequencer, Prover, Publisher, and Challenger. In traditional Layer2 architectures, different functions are usually performed by different roles. For example, sequencers are responsible for packaging and ordering transactions, provers generate zero-knowledge proofs, publishers submit state data to the main chain, and challengers monitor and question suspicious states, among other tasks. BitVM2 is no exception, distributing these responsibilities across multiple roles and committees. The problem is that some roles make money (for example, sequencers can charge transaction fees), while others incur costs (for example, provers need high computational power to generate proofs), leading to a stark disparity between burdens and benefits. If roles remain fixed, it becomes difficult to design a fair and efficient economic model. Therefore, the "Universal Operator" model can be considered one of the core innovations of GOAT. Through a rotation mechanism, everyone has the opportunity to play every role, all operators run the same software, abide by the same rules of the game, and everyone is responsible and benefits. GOAT hopes to achieve the following optimizations through this universal operator model: Balancing revenue and costs: By allowing operators to regularly rotate between profitable roles and high-cost roles, it ensures that each participant's income and expenditure are roughly balanced in the long run. Cross-role subsidies: This rotation between roles effectively creates a "cross-subsidy" effect. For example, when I, as an operator, earn money while acting as a sorter, part of that revenue offsets the computational costs when I later act as a prover. This ties together the previously fragmented interests of roles, driving everyone to cooperate rather than compete. Lowering participation thresholds: With role rotation, small and medium nodes do not have to continually bear the burden of high-cost roles. This means that participants in the network do not need to invest huge amounts of computational power or capital, allowing smaller players to join and share in the benefits. For the entire system, this enhances decentralization and openness — with more nodes, it aligns better with the spirit of Bitcoin. Enhancing system resilience: Since each node is well-trained and capable of performing multiple roles, when individual operators go offline or fail, the system can flexibly assign the corresponding responsibilities to other online nodes. The network no longer relies on a single service provider, thus possessing greater fault tolerance. 2.2 Yield Pool and Cross-Role Subsidies: The yBTC/pBTC model brings continuous returns. With the universal operator network in place, there is still a need to clarify one question: how to distribute the revenue generated by the network in a way that both incentivizes node participation and rewards ordinary users? GOAT's answer is to design a revenue pool mechanism, introducing the yBTC/pBTC interest model to achieve reasonable distribution of profits and cross-role subsidies, allowing the entire network to form a positive economic cycle. The specific operational steps are as follows: When users bridge BTC mainnet assets into GOAT, they will receive 1:1 locked L2 tokens, called gBTC (goatBTC). Both users and node operators can choose to stake their gBTC into decentralized sorter nodes, thereby earning mining rewards and corresponding yield-bearing tokens yBTC. yBTC can be understood as "BTC that carries interest," representing the staked principal and the future earnings that can be obtained from the network. After obtaining yBTC, holders can further choose to deposit yBTC into the Decomposition Pool to separate the principal value from the future rights to earnings. In this process, yBTC will be staked, and the smart contract will accordingly generate two new tokens: pBTC (Principal BTC): Represents the principal value corresponding to a certain amount of BTC. Holding pBTC is equivalent to holding the redemption rights of that portion of the principal in the GOAT network, and is a "pure principal" token, equivalent to a zero-coupon bond. yToken (Yield Token): The sorter reward, represents the yield rights stripped from yBTC, which is the rights carrier of the BTC interest income generated by the network in the future, and is the future cash flow of income.
Why split? The liquidity design philosophy of GOAT. Traditional yield design locks up the principal and future earnings, requiring users to wait for network dividend cycles, resulting in poor liquidity. GOAT releases the future value of BTC assets through yield splitting, allowing users to: trade future income rights in advance and gain instant liquidity. More importantly, the design of pBTC/yToken enables BTC users to have financial products similar to Ethereum's liquid staking assets within the Bitcoin ecosystem for the first time, greatly enriching the asset system of BTCFi. For example, pBTC/yBTC can have different maturity dates: 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, etc., which will establish an interest rate market based on BTC. Through this split, the GOAT network provides users with the flexibility to manage their assets and expected returns, thereby giving rise to at least two main participation models. For those users who value principal security or wish to manage future earnings in advance, they can hold pBTC while immediately selling the split-off yToken (which represents expected sorter rewards for a future period) in the market or use it for other financial activities. In this way, users convert future potential volatile and installment-realized earnings into immediate liquidity or certain value. For users pursuing higher yield potential, they can choose to purchase yToken from the market. The yToken grants them the right to receive sorter rewards during a specific period. As sorter earnings (such as fuel fees) may increase with rising network activity, the value of yToken may also increase accordingly. 2.3 Internal Economic Flow of the Revenue Pool: How to Form Cross-Role Subsidies? The GOAT reward pool is not simply a distribution of rewards, but rather a dynamic balance of income and expenses for all participating roles.
The economic model design of the GOAT Network relies on a universal operator rotation mechanism and cross-cycle breakeven to achieve revenue subsidies among roles. Specifically speaking: Each operator can earn transaction fees, sequencing rewards, and potential MEV gains while serving as a sequencer in a certain cycle. In other cycles, the operator may become a prover or a publisher, which requires bearing high computational costs or on-chain publishing fees. Since all nodes will take turns experiencing different roles, the total earnings of a node throughout the participation cycle = income when serving as a sequencer - costs when serving as a prover or publisher. The core of this design's subsidy: it is not instant allocation through a single revenue pool, but rather achieved through temporal role rotation for cross-cycle self-subsidization. GOAT tends to achieve economic self-balance through trading fees themselves and role rotation, and does not want to rely entirely on additional subsidies or token issuance. 3. Multi-round challenge mechanism: Enhance security and accelerate block confirmation. As mentioned earlier, the original BitVM2 challenge process suffers from a long cycle and low efficiency, with each challenge taking up to two weeks, which severely affects the user experience of waiting for transaction confirmations. The most striking breakthrough of GOAT BitVM2 is that the challenge period has been shortened from 14 days to less than 1 day! Behind this is the "multi-round challenger rotation mechanism". To put it simply, when a suspicious state needs to be challenged, the system no longer assigns a fixed challenger and waits for their actions as before, but introduces multiple rounds of challenge opportunities. Specifically, the GOAT randomly selects a "challenger" from the node pool each time, and the challenger must review the validity of transactions and proofs within a short specified period of time. If the first round of challengers does not find a problem, the task immediately goes to the second round of randomly assigned challengers, and so on. This multi-round random review method is equivalent to a step-by-step review in the bank's business review, which greatly increases the probability of errors being discovered. From a security perspective, multi-round challenges have improved the efficiency and effectiveness of fraud detection. When bad actors know that they could be caught by any honest node at any time, and that the cost of "bribing everyone" is extremely high, their willingness to commit wrongdoing naturally decreases. Furthermore, GOAT combines this mechanism with a dual penalty strategy, which not only punishes proposers who submit false states but also punishes challengers who are negligent or malicious in their challenges. IV. Vertical Comparison: From 1.0 to 2.0, the Upgrade Path of the GOAT Economic Model 4.1 1.0 VS 2.0 The economic model of the GOAT Network was not developed overnight. In 2024, the team released version 1.0 of the Economics BeigePaper, which proposed a basic framework for decentralized multi-currency staking and sustainable BTC earnings. The model at that time focused on allowing BTC and DOGE holders to participate in the network through staking, sharing trading fee earnings, and realizing the vision of "Supply BTC/DOGE, Earn BTC." Version 1.0 depicted how general Sequencer nodes generate income and introduced the concept of yBTC as a proof of income, opening a new door for BTC holders to earn on-chain revenue. However, with the proposal of the BitVM2 solution by Robin Linus and the advancement of the GOAT mainnet testing, the team also found the need to further improve security and incentive mechanisms. The newly released BeigePaper 2.0 has made several improvements addressing the shortcomings of 1.0. First, 2.0 fully introduces a multi-round challenger mechanism, compressing the original two-week challenge period to about one day, significantly enhancing user withdrawal speed and network activity. Secondly, 2.0 strengthens challenge incentives by adding fraud bounties and penalty mechanisms, filling the gap of "unpaid labor" for challengers during the 1.0 period, ensuring that the incentives for various roles in the network are more accurately aligned. It can be said that from 1.0 to 2.0, the GOAT Network has achieved a dual leap in both economic and technological terms—the former making network incentives fairer and more sustainable, and the latter providing solid and credible operational guarantees for these incentive mechanisms. 4.2 The Function and Ecological Role of GOAT Token In the economic system of the GOAT Network, BTC earnings are the core of the network's circulation, but the GOAT token also plays an important role as an incentive tool. The GOAT token plays a key role in the economic model by providing subsidies and incentives. Although the network's goal is to achieve self-balancing BTC earnings through cross-role subsidies, during the initial operation phase or high-cost rounds (such as complex proof generation), some additional incentives will be issued in the form of GOAT tokens as an important support during the network's launch phase. Overall, the GOAT token is not a competing currency to BTC returns, but rather a complementary tool for the BTCFi yield ecosystem. The GOAT token focuses on network security and incentive adjustment, while BTC returns are the core of attracting users and funds to the network in the long term. This design ensures that the GOAT Network centers around BTC returns, with the GOAT token supported by governance, forming a reasonable dual-track economic structure. V. Horizontal Comparison: Differences Between GOAT and Other BTC L2 Projects Among the many BTC Layer 2 solutions, the differentiation of GOAT Network is manifested in: the Bitcoin-native ZK Rollup based on BitVM2, a well-designed Rollup economic model, and the yBTC/pBTC yield model, which achieves cross-role cost subsidies and provides users with sustainable BTC returns. Its architecture, balancing security neutrality, economic sustainability, and role decentralization, stands out among BTC L2 projects. The following is a specific comparison: It can be seen that compared to the GOAT technology and economic model architecture, other project proposals lack a clear design for decentralized sorters, and there is no complete solution for the double spending problem, as well as detailed economic incentives for key network maintenance roles.